Psychology notes

 GRAVEC used to evaluate studies

Generalisability, whether the study sample is truly representative of the target population - sample bias, androcentric (focus on males), Ethnocentric (focus on ethics), limited sample, sampling techniques used, representativeness

Reliability, whether the procedure are consistent enough to e replicated and get the same results again- same results?. standardisation, control, observer reliability, coding of the data

Application, whether the study is useful in the real world - real life situation to improve quality of life or outcomes for society

Validity, whether the study really tells you about what it is supposed to tell you about what it is supposed to tell you about 

Ethics, whether the study ensures the wellbeing of its participants and the wider community - informed consent, deception, protection from physical and psychological harm, debriefing, confidentiality

Credibility, strength of the study - Is it believable?

CODA used to evaluate theories

Credibility, strength of theory - Is it believable?

Objections, refers to criticisms of a theory - what goes against it ?

Differences, how the theory differs from other theories that try to explain the same thing

Applications, whether the theory is useful to the real world

APRC used to describe a study

Aim,

Procedure,

Results,

Conclusion, give a judgement

Types of validity - 

Internal validity - Extent to which study is free of design faults which could affect results

Ecological validity - type of 'external validity' Extent to which generalisation can be made from the test environment to other situations

Face validity - does the test look like it is measuring what it is suppose to be measuring

Predictive validity - predicts future performance with some accuracy result

Concurrent validity - compares two methods of testing to see if the results are comparable. Used to compare a new test with an established one

Construct validity - comparing results with expectations

Types of reliability - 

Scorer reliability - how closely different people who are meeting a test or performance agree with each other

Test re test reliability - if participants take the same test twice, would they get similar results?

Inter-rater reliability - assessing the consistency of measurement between different observes. Another involves achieving consistent measuring instruments when developing tests

Equivalent forms of reliability - if repeating a test exactly is not possible would results in a similar test be comparable?

Split half reliability - if a test is of equal difficulty throughput, do scores at the beginning compare to those at the end?

Evaluate Milgram's study of obedience -

Milgram's original study had a small sample that didn't generalise to women or non-Americans. (AO1) It was 40 New Haven men, but, in later Variations, Milgram also tested women and they behaved the same way. It also highlights that factors such as gender have little impact on obedience. This shows that Milgram’s original study may not represent all adults in various cultures (ethnocentric). It also does not explain the similarities in all men but also the differences between them that may also contribute to different emotional responses.

Milgram’s original study was conducted in a laboratory setting and has high test re-test reliability. (AO1) The study had high controls such as script for the verbal prods and a pre-recorded set of reactions from the confederate. This shows that the experiment was very consistent and standardised for each participant – producing the same experience and can easily be replicated.

Milgram’s study is low in ecological validity and in some respect applicability too because the situation he put his participants through was not like obeying a real authority figure. (AO1) Giving electric shocks to a learner is artificial and this means the study doesn’t really tell us about why people obeyed the Nazis, only how they behave in psychology experiments.  This tells us that participants behave accordingly in an experiment but not the true authority relationship between teachers and students.

However, the study probably was highly valid and applicable to the real-world because the participants showed genuine distress, which shows they thought it was real. (AO1) Most of them shook or moaned and some cried or laughed hysterically. This shows that participants showed genuine human reactions to authority despite being in an artificial setting that lacked ecological validity. This shows that the study also breached ethical guidelines of protecting participants because so many of the participants were so distressed.

Gina Perry accuses Milgram of twisting his results to prove there is “a Nazi inside all of us”. She argues his conclusions are invalid because the participants suspected it was unreal. (AO1) Some participants said that they suspected the shocks weren’t real when screams came from speakers, not from behind the wall. Nonetheless, this shows us that the experiment was still unethical with participants showing very real fearful reactions.

Why you obey someone of higher authority- 

Strength

Immediacy

Numbers

Strength and weakness of Burgers study - 

Burger’s study has problems with ecological validity just like Milgram. Giving electric shocks to a learner is artificial and doesn’t happen in real life. That means the study doesn’t really tell us about why people obeyed the Nazis. In fact, the situation is so bizarre it might not tell us anything about the participants' normal behaviour.

However, Burger did improve the validity by paying the participants $50 in advance. He also advised them three times that they could withdraw and still keep the money. This removes the confounding variable in Milgram's original research that some of them might have continued because they were worried they would lose the money (a cost/benefit analysis, not real obedience).

Burger’s biggest problem is that he stopped the study at 150V and assumed that anyone who was prepared to go on would have gone to 450V. This is Burger's "150 Volt Solution" but it might not be a correct assumption, especially in the “model refusal” condition where participants might have had second thoughts and backed out later.

However, Burger did this to make the study more ethical than Milgram. Delivering the higher shocks to a learner who seems to be dead was very distressing for Milgram’s participants and Burger spared his participants having to do this. He also screened out people with emotional issues and made sure the experimenter was a clinical psychologist who could identify distress and stop the experiment if the participant showed signs of suffering.

Variation 7 - Telephonic instructions

The experimenter (Mr Williams) gives the PPs their instructions at the start and then leaves the teacher alone in the room with the shock generator and a telephone. If the teacher has any doubts or questions they must phone the Experimenter. The 'prods' are also delivered over the phone.

A significant drop in obedience was found, down to 9 people (22.5%) and some PPs gave lower shocks that they were told to because they didn't believe they were being observed.

Milgram's stated that the physical presence of an authority figure is important for obedience (proximity)

Variation 10 - Bridgeport variation

Milgram moves the study to a run down office block in the busy town Bridgeport. Nothing made PPs link things to the university, Mr Williams claimed to work for a private research company.

Drop in obedience was found to 19 people (45.5%), Milgram didn't believe it was big enough to be significant. PPs showed more doubts and asked more questions. One of them made nots as if they intended to make a complaint later. Another person objected that the study was 'heartless'

Milgram concluded that the setting is not as important for obedience as the statues of the authority figure.

Variation 13/13a - Ordinary man

Mr Williams explains the procedure to the PP but then is called away. Mr Williams does not tell the teacher to increase the shock by 15v with each incorrect answer.

A second confederate is present who seems to be another PP who is given the job 'of writing down the times' of each test. When Mr Williams has left the confederate suggests 'a new way of doing the study' taking the voltage up by 15v each time a mistake is made. 

Only 20 PPs did this variation and only 4 people (20%) obeyed by going to 450v

Milgram concludes that the status of the authority figure is important but other features of the situation (instructions and shock generator) still create obedience

Variation 13a - 

Milgram uses the 16 participants who 'rebelled' from variation 13

As soon as participants rebelled in 13 Milgram moved them to 13a. From the PPs view point it seemed like it was the same study and not a new one starting

Confederate suggested swapping places, so now the confederate gives the shocks and the disobedient participant writes down the times. PP is now a bystander, watching someone else give the shocks.

All PPs protested and 5 of them tried to unplug the shock generator or restrain the confederate physically. But 11 people (68.75%) allowed the confederate to reach 450v.



 Milgram states that people are more willing to be bystanders than to intervene to prevent the abuse of authority.




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